Africa Map

Western Sahara: Africa's Last Colony

Geography of Contested Sands

Western Sahara covers approximately 266,000 square kilometers of northwestern Africa, making it roughly the size of New Zealand. The territory stretches along 1,110 kilometers of Atlantic coastline from Morocco in the north to Mauritania in the south and east. This strategic location controls access to rich fishing grounds and potentially significant offshore oil reserves. The landscape consists primarily of desert plains, rocky plateaus, and low mountains, with the highest point at 805 meters in the northeast.

The territory divides into two main regions: Saguia el-Hamra in the north and Río de Oro in the south, names reflecting the Spanish colonial administration. The northern region contains most of the population and economic activity, including the capital El Aaiún (Laayoune) and the phosphate deposits at Bou Craa. The southern region remains more isolated and sparsely populated, characterized by vast expanses of hamada (rocky desert) and occasional oases. The Atlantic coast features dramatic cliffs, sandy beaches, and several natural harbors that support fishing industries.

Climate conditions are harsh, with the territory lying entirely within the Sahara Desert. Rainfall rarely exceeds 50 millimeters annually, concentrated in brief winter storms. Temperatures vary dramatically between day and night, and between coastal and inland areas. The coast benefits from the cooling influence of the Canary Current, maintaining temperatures between 20-25°C year-round, while inland summer temperatures can exceed 50°C. Sandstorms are frequent, particularly during seasonal wind changes, creating challenging living conditions and affecting transportation.

The Territorial Dispute

Morocco considers Western Sahara its "Southern Provinces" and has invested heavily in infrastructure development, population transfers, and resource exploitation. The kingdom bases its claim on historical ties and argues that its development efforts benefit the local population. Morocco has proposed autonomy under Moroccan sovereignty as a solution, rejecting independence but offering regional self-governance. This position has gained support from some international actors, particularly France and the United States.

The Polisario Front, backed by Algeria, continues to advocate for independence through a UN-supervised referendum on self-determination promised in the 1991 ceasefire agreement. The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic operates a government-in-exile from the refugee camps near Tindouf, Algeria, where an estimated 173,000 Sahrawi refugees have lived for decades. The conflict resumed in November 2020 when the Polisario ended the 29-year ceasefire, citing Morocco's violation of the agreement, though large-scale fighting has not materialized.

Historical Background

The indigenous Sahrawi people, comprising various tribes of Berber and Arab descent, traditionally lived as nomadic herders moving across the desert without regard for modern borders. Their society organized around tribal structures, with complex systems of wells, grazing rights, and trade routes. Islam arrived in the 8th century, becoming deeply integrated with local customs. The Sahrawi developed a distinct dialect of Hassaniya Arabic and maintained trade connections across the Sahara, dealing in salt, gold, and slaves.

Natural Resources and Economy

Western Sahara's economy centers on three main resources: phosphates, fishing, and potentially oil. The Bou Craa phosphate mine represents one of the world's largest reserves, with estimated deposits of 10 billion tons. A 100-kilometer conveyor belt, the world's longest, transports phosphate rock from the mine to the coast at El Aaiún port. Morocco's state-owned OCP Group operates the mine, generating significant revenue despite international legal challenges regarding resource exploitation in occupied territories.

Tourism remains minimal due to political tensions and travel restrictions. Morocco promotes controlled tourism to showcase development projects, while independent travel to Polisario-controlled areas requires special permits. The territory's dramatic landscapes, including white sand beaches, mountainous regions, and prehistoric rock art sites, hold significant tourism potential in a peaceful scenario. Traditional crafts, including silver jewelry and woven goods, provide limited income for local artisans.

Sahrawi Culture and Society

Sahrawi culture reflects centuries of nomadic life in one of the world's harshest environments. Traditional society organized around extended family groups and tribes, with complex oral traditions preserving history, genealogy, and poetry. The harsh desert environment fostered values of hospitality, solidarity, and resilience. Traditional knowledge of stars, winds, and landmarks enabled navigation across vast distances, while understanding of scarce water sources meant survival.

The refugee camps near Tindouf have become unique social experiments, organizing along traditional tribal lines while developing new institutions. Women play prominent roles in camp administration, education, and healthcare, representing a significant shift from traditional gender roles. Education receives high priority, with literacy rates in camps exceeding those in many African countries. A generation has now grown up in exile, educated and politically conscious but disconnected from their homeland.

Life Under Occupation

In Moroccan-controlled areas, Sahrawis report systematic discrimination and human rights violations. Moroccan security forces maintain heavy presence in Sahrawi-majority areas, with reports of arbitrary detention, torture, and restrictions on freedom of expression and assembly. Sahrawi activists face harassment and imprisonment for advocating independence or displaying Sahrawi symbols. International human rights organizations have documented these abuses but face restrictions accessing the territory.

Morocco's development policy includes significant infrastructure investment, with modern roads, airports, subsidized housing, and public services. However, critics argue these primarily benefit Moroccan settlers who now outnumber indigenous Sahrawis in major cities. Employment in government and state enterprises often requires political loyalty, limiting opportunities for independence supporters. The education system promotes Moroccan national identity, with limited recognition of Sahrawi culture and history.

Daily life involves navigating complex political realities. Families remain divided by the sand wall, with limited ability to visit relatives on the other side. Youth face particular challenges, with high unemployment and limited opportunities driving some to risk dangerous migration to the Canary Islands. Others engage in peaceful resistance through cultural activities, social media activism, and international advocacy. The COVID-19 pandemic provided cover for increased restrictions on movement and assembly.

International Dimensions

The Western Sahara conflict involves complex international dynamics beyond Morocco and the Polisario. Algeria's support for Sahrawi independence reflects both solidarity with anti-colonial movements and rivalry with Morocco for regional influence. The two countries' closed border since 1994 costs billions in lost trade and development opportunities. Mauritania, initially claiming the southern portion, recognized the Sahrawi Republic in 1984 but maintains pragmatic relations with Morocco.

European Union interests complicate resolution efforts. Fishing and agricultural agreements with Morocco include Western Sahara's resources, despite EU court rulings requiring Sahrawi consent. Spain, the former colonial power, balances historical responsibility with economic interests and concerns about Moroccan cooperation on migration control. France's strong support for Morocco blocks Security Council action, while other European countries express varying degrees of support for self-determination.

Recent diplomatic shifts have altered the conflict's dynamics. The United States recognized Moroccan sovereignty in 2020 in exchange for Morocco normalizing relations with Israel, breaking with decades of supporting a UN-supervised referendum. Several African and Arab countries have opened consulates in Western Sahara, implicitly recognizing Moroccan control. However, the African Union admits the Sahrawi Republic as a member state, creating diplomatic tensions. These developments suggest the conflict may be frozen rather than resolved.

Environmental Challenges

Climate change exacerbates Western Sahara's already harsh environmental conditions. Rising temperatures and declining rainfall threaten traditional nomadic lifestyles and scarce water resources. The Atlantic coast faces sea-level rise and increased storm intensity, endangering coastal communities and infrastructure. Overgrazing around settlements and refugee camps contributes to desertification, while industrial fishing depletes marine resources.

The military infrastructure itself creates environmental impacts. The sand wall disrupts traditional migration routes for both humans and wildlife, while millions of landmines contaminate vast areas. Military vehicles and installations damage fragile desert ecosystems slow to recover in arid conditions. Phosphate mining leaves enormous open pits and generates dust affecting air quality and health. The lack of environmental governance in a disputed territory means little regulation or remediation.

Water scarcity represents perhaps the greatest challenge. Fossil aquifers provide most water but face depletion and salinization from overuse. Coastal fog harvesting and desalination offer potential solutions but require investment and stable governance. Traditional knowledge of seasonal water sources and conservation practices erodes as populations concentrate in cities and camps. Climate adaptation strategies remain limited by the political situation and lack of coordinated planning.

Prospects for Resolution

After nearly five decades, the Western Sahara conflict appears increasingly intractable. The promised referendum faces seemingly insurmountable obstacles over voter eligibility, with Morocco insisting on including Moroccan settlers while Polisario demands limiting voters to the 1974 Spanish census and their descendants. The UN has proposed various compromise solutions, including partition or extended autonomy, but neither side shows flexibility on the core issue of sovereignty.

Generational changes affect both sides' calculations. Young Sahrawis in camps and occupied territories grow frustrated with the diplomatic stalemate, with some advocating return to armed struggle while others seek individual solutions through migration. In Morocco, the official narrative of territorial integrity resonates strongly, making compromise politically difficult. The resumption of hostilities in 2020, while limited, demonstrates the conflict's potential to escalate.

Resolution ultimately requires addressing fundamental questions of self-determination, resource control, and regional stability. The international community's divided response enables the status quo's continuation, with realpolitik often trumping principles. Meanwhile, the Sahrawi people remain divided between occupation, exile, and diaspora, their right to determine their future unfulfilled. Western Sahara stands as a reminder that decolonization remains incomplete and that frozen conflicts can persist indefinitely without committed international action. The territory's vast deserts hold not just valuable resources but also the aspirations of a people seeking recognition and justice in an increasingly indifferent world.